3/20/2023 0 Comments Artifact meaning in technology![]() Millikan aims for a theory of functions that applies to artifacts as well as organisms.Īgainst these attempts to bring all uses of the notion of function under a single theory, Beth Preston (1998) argues for a pluralistic theory of functions that includes Cummins's system functions and Millikan's proper functions. According to Millikan, by contrast, the proper function of an organ or system is what helps to account for the survival and proliferation of its ancestors (1993). According to Cummins (1975), who is primarily concerned with biological systems, something has a function insofar as it contributes to the capacity of some system. The use of the term function in the previous paragraphs sets aside a considerable philosophical debate about the meaning of functions, one that has taken place largely in relation to the analysis of functions in biology (the function of the heart is to pump blood) and the social sciences (the function of religion is to create social cohesion).īriefly there are two major competing concepts of functions: system functions as first stated by Robert Cummins, and proper functions as first stated by Larry Wright (1973) and further analyzed by Ruth Millikan, Karen Neander, and others. Even natural objects can, in a context of use, be subject to such judgments, for instance when one says that a particular stone is a good stone to use as a hammer. One can also say that a particular artifact, in the prevailing circumstances, ought to do such-and-such a thing. An artifact is said to perform its function well or to function poorly or to malfunction. ![]() Typical for artifact use, such judgments may be translated, so to speak, to the artifacts themselves. Assuming that the attempt to open the can is itself perfectly in order, the wrong here is not morally wrong but instrumentally or functionally wrong: Using the Phillips screwdriver will not smoothly lead to the desired outcome. For instance, one may say that it is wrong to use a Phillips screwdriver to open a paint can. It is generally wrong, for example, to hurt another person with a knife, which is merely a specification of the judgment that one ought, generally, not to hurt someone.Īdditionally, however, the use of artifacts is subject to judgments that relate directly to the particular function of the artifact. Using an artifact is subject to these types of judgments, in the first place because it is a form of action. Evaluative judgments describe something as good or bad. Deontic judgments express what one ought and ought not to do or what one has reasons for doing. ![]() These judgments are of two sorts: deontic and evaluative. Because references to technical functions are often the basis for assessing human uses of artifacts, and insofar as such assessments express certain values, the relation between technical functions and uses is an issue for any ethics of technology.Īll intentional human behaviors or actions are subject to normative judgments. Telephones are designed and built so that they can be used for transmitting the human voice over distances well beyond its normal range. Such technical functions are strongly related to human uses. In a telephone sound is transformed into electronic signals that are then transmitted over some distance and transformed back into sound by another telephone. The Internet similarly displays an enhanced capacity for global outreach and, consequently and paradoxically, the creation of a world where perhaps social and cultural differences are less significant.One common way to describe artifacts is in terms of how they technically function. Cell phones, for example, illustrate how people within modern society have eased and streamlined opportunities for communication. a utensil or camera), while secondary artifacts are representations of primary artifacts, and tertiary artifacts are representations of secondary artifacts.ĭespite their comparable newness, even modern innovations can be esteemed as cultural artifacts given context and interpretation. Primary artifacts are those used in production (i.e. The Wartofsky system establishes three tiers: primary artifacts, secondary artifacts, and tertiary artifacts. Some specialists have endeavored to offer classification systems for cultural artifacts. For example, a statue of a Stone Age fertility goddess may reveal what people of that time thought about women. They may ask if the item tells a story, if it has embedded symbolism or if it illuminates the cultural or social attitudes of the item’s producers toward a specific topic. When examining cultural artifacts, specialists, such as archaeologists and anthropologists, pay close attention to several things.
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